| The "landscape of fear" has become a central topic of ecological research, furthering our understanding of predator-prey interactions in heterogeneous landscapes. Spatial variation in predation can explain patterns of animal behavior and distribution, and the fear associated with predation risk is a key driver of survival and population dynamics. Using the landscape of fear framework, we studied how black-tailed deer experience, perceive, and respond to layered risk from both hunters and natural predators. Our research site, the Hopland Research and Extension Center in Mendocino County, California, is heterogeneous both in terms of habitat and human footprint. This heterogeneity sets the stage for fear-driven interactions between deer, mountain lions, bears, coyotes, and hunters. Deer alter their patterns of habitat selection, movement, and activity to avoid areas and time periods of highest risk. Our research integrates a mix of spatial tools, including remote sensing and GIS, GPS telemetry, camera traps, and controlled behavioral experiments. Using these tools, we have quantified spatial and temporal patterns of predation risk as well as deer behavioral responses to better understand the role of fear in human-altered ecosystems. |